Degree in a Language Other than Ones Mother Tongue Article

Degree in a Language Other than Ones Mother Tongue - Article Example When the entire coursework one has to read and comprehend for the degree is in a language other than one’s mother tongue, it calls for an extra effort to see to it that everything is properly understood. It is definitely going to be tougher task than reading study materials in one’s own language. One has to assume that the student will be tested to have basic proficiency in the medium of instruction in which the degree is to be studied. However, a basic proficiency in the language may not be sufficient to follow different registers of the language. A degree course will necessarily feature a lot of specialist vocabulary that the student is supposed to pick up fast. For a foreign user of the language, it may take double the time to pick up such specialist words, since their explanations will also demand a working level knowledge of the language. This may in fact lead to initial hiccups which would dissuade many students from continuing the course. They may feel left out f rom the group of students who are more proficient and at ease in the medium of instruction.The problem mentioned above can in fact be overcome and turned into a benefit if the student is willing to dedicate quality time in enhancing her/his knowledge in the language simultaneously with the work done for the degree course. At least two dictionaries could be used to meet the challenges of the new language– one dictionary gives explanations of the words in the new language to the students mother tongue, and another dictionary gives simple explanations of the words in the new language

The Pledge of Allegiance should be said in public schools Research Paper

The Pledge of Allegiance should be said in public schools - Research Paper Example The pledge is a promise that Americans make to their country. ‘Allegiance’ means that one is loyal to the country. The flag is the symbol of America. ‘Republic’ means a democratic space where people are guaranteed the rights to take part in electioneering politics and voting processes. ‘One nation’ stands for a unified America. â€Å"Under God† symbolizes the people’s reverence of God as the source of blessing upon America. ‘Indivisible’ means that the states of America should not divide for any reason. ‘Liberty’ means that the people have freedom to pursue their interests without inhibition while ‘justice for all’ means that everyone in America would be treated fairly according to the law and the founding values of the country. Having been created in 1892, The Pledge of Allegiance should be said in public schools. It is a historical reminder of what America is about. The magazine, ‘The Youth’s Companion’ on September 8, 1892 published the words of the Allegiance Pledge. It intended to have students recite it at school during the commemoration of Columbus Day in 1892. On October 12, 1892, an approximated 12 million children in America recited the word of the Pledge of Allegiance, marking the beginning of what would become a school tradition in America (Streufert, para 1). ... Streufert (para 3) further added that only a half of the states currently have laws that encourage the recitation of the pledge by children in classrooms. This shows of how the great significance of the Pledge of Allegiance has waned in the country. The Pledge of Allegiance has been met with several challenges in the recent times because of the addition of the phrase ‘under God’ to it. According to Conton (para 1-2), the phrase ‘under God’ has brought several lawsuits that challenge the pledge as violating equal rights of the multicultural diversity in America. Kevin Conton is the national editor for CNN in Massachusetts. The latest lawsuits that challenge the pledge on grounds of religious discrimination have always failed one after the other. The basis of their failures in courts across the U.S. is because the Pledge of Allegiance does not have a compulsory clause that forces one to recite it if they feel that it violates their equal rights (Conton para 6) . Despite the ongoing legal battles of the constitutionality of the phrase ‘under God’ in the Pledge of Allegiance, Americans should understand one fact that the pledge does not criminalize those who feel violated from reciting it. There are several inevitable values that American citizens should remind themselves of through recitation of the pledge in public schools. It does not mean that everyone in public schools should be forced to recite it. However, American children who feel obliged to reconnect with American values and history through recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance should be given an opportunity to do so because they have the liberty to enjoy that freedom. The differences in opinions of those who support the Pledge of Allegiance and those oppose it could just be a healthy part of

Significant Market Position Toshiba Marketing Essay

Significant Market Position Toshiba Marketing Essay Toshiba is a strong and respected name in the market with a well-deserved reputation for innovation, high performance and reliability. We have represented the brand in Ireland since 1982 and, by combining our strengths with those of Toshiba, we have carved out a significant market share. Broad diversified product portfolio Toshiba is a diversified manufacturer and marketer of advanced electronic and electrical products. Its product portfolio includes information and communications equipment and systems, internet based solutions and services, electronic components and materials, power system, industrial and social infrastructure systems, and household appliances. Strong research and development Toshiba has strong commitment to research and development programs. In an average year Toshiba is awarded more than 5,000 patents, many of which find their way either directly or indirectly into our multi-functional office solutions products. Enhancement of customer satisfaction Adhering to the Toshiba Group Customer Satisfaction Policy established in 2003, we aim to enhance customer satisfaction (CS) through the provision of safe and innovative products, systems and services as well as through communication with customers. Toshiba Group Customer Satisfaction Policy We make the voice of customers the starting point for all ideas and provide products, systems and services that deliver customer satisfaction. We provide products, systems and services that are safe and reliable. We respond to requests and inquiries from customers sincerely, rapidly and appropriately. We value the voice of customers and endeavor to develop and improve products, systems and services to deliver customer satisfaction. We provide appropriate information to customers. We protect personal data provided by customers. Weaknesses High debt In fiscal 2008, Toshiba placed a high priority on recovering its drastically eroded shareholders equity. The company is now making efforts to reduce debt in order to establish a solid financial profile by March 2012. Towards this goal, the company announced a policy to constrain capital investment, particularly in the semiconductor business. Standard Poors considers Toshibas conservative financial policy to be further evidenced by the implementation of a number of planned financial activities. These include capital enhancement through an increase in common stocks and the refinancing of short-term debt by the issuance of subordinated bonds. Standard Poors will closely monitor whether the company can improve its financial indicators as planned, through the consistent reduction of fixed costs and capital investments. Lack of manpower After four months of struggle and weeks of intense negotiations, workers and management at Toshiba Consumer Products Indonesia reached a settlement: 682 workers will be reinstated, but 15 local union leaders will not get their jobs back. Over leveraged financial position Year over year, Toshiba Corporation has seen revenues fall from $80.4B to $76.6B. This along with an increase in the cost of goods sold expense has led to a reduction in the bottom line from $1.7B to $925.7M. Ubiquitiouegory, products, services Cloud services will become truly ubiquitous, omnipresent. It is the broader access to most recent content and information plus the benefit of a vast social community contributing to its discovery and consumption adding, recommending, rating and prioritizing content and information that will make cloud services an increasingly indispensable element in consumers evolving digital lifestyle. Sun Zi said: When victory is long overdue, weapons will be blunt and the morale (and motivation) of the troops will be adversely affected. In war, it is better to go for swift victories rather than engage in prolonged military campaigns. Sun Zi also said: Therefore, generals who do not thoroughly comprehend the inherent dangers of deploying troops are unlikely to understand the advantages of using troops. Opportunities Market Recently Toshiba just launch the 12 new products in the Bangladesh. Bangladesh have a large population approximately 160 million. Toshiba has working with Smart Technologies BD Limited (STBL) Bangladesh Company since last 3 years. In this 3 year, Toshiba Company found that Bangladesh market impressive increase in term of sales volume and growth. Bangladesh is developing and has high potential in market. Global expansion It can let the profit or income of the Toshiba Company to increase or growing the market value of the Toshiba Company among the world. The popularities can also increase by this way. Without affecting quality and customer service, global expansion can maximizing profitability in all areas of the Toshiba Company. For instance, by developing the new marketing strategies in those regions, it can make let Toshiba Companys loyalty customers to buy their products. Global expansion can also help to leads to leveraging of expertise. With global expansion, leveraging any know-how or expertise in overseas production is prudent. Future plans Toshiba aim to double its annual profit in three year. The worlds No.2 maker of NAND flashes chips, behind the Samsung electronics. The firm is going to shift its focus to emerge economies and growing market after the demand for television fall dramatically than expected in the previous year. Besides that, Toshiba Company also interested in making money through nuclear power, they plan to buy 20 percent of share from the U.S nuclear power company in the next January. Toshiba is going to invest about $4.3 billion dollar to build new flash memory facility, in order to catch up the leader Samsung electronics, aiming to triple its manufacture capacity. Moreover, Toshiba plan to roll out a home storage battery system that can keep the appliances running for a good part all the day long. Toshiba developed a storage battery system that makes use of the Toshiba technology for rechargeable batteries. This storage battery can work up to 12 hour. Threats Competition Being an electronic company, in this environment of course there will be a lot of competitor. For example, the competitor for the Toshiba Company likes Samsung, Apple, HP, Dell, and other company that focus electronic production. These companies have created threats for the Toshiba Company. The tablets that made by Toshiba is not really attracted by consumer, because Apple and Samsung are leading on this market products. Besides that, Toshiba main production is notebook, although this is their priority product, but a lot of competitor also produces various type of notebook. Although they made a quality, productivity and user friendly notebook, but Toshiba still behind the other competitor that leading them by brand name position on customer heart. External changes This changes is depends on the government taxes and politics in the certain country that the Toshiba company invest in. First and foremost, government taxes and politics have created a burden to all company. As taxes increase its have the same effect that the company need to cover the cost of the good that rise such as electricity and input, all company are established because their purpose is profit.

STD PREVENTION Essay -- essays research papers

Abstinence And STD Prevention Today’s world is full of worries and problems which did not affect teens a generation ago. New problems keep appearing in today’s world, such as STDs, increased pregnancy rates, and other factors facing teens who choose to have sex. Emotionally and physically teens and getting less developed before having sex and are not prepared for the serious problems which come along with their decision to have sex. No longer is it a matter which will just go away if we ignore it, but teen health and the health of our society depend on choices which today’s teens make regarding sex. With so many diseases and problems facing today’s world, abstinence is the only way to protect ourselves. Abstinence is a safe choice in preventing the possibility of pregnancy. One-tenth of young women between the ages of 15 and 19 get pregnant every year, 83 percent of these pregnancies are unwanted or unplanned. Half of the unmarried teens who get pregnant do so within six months of their first sexual experience. In fact, between 1986 and 1990, teen childbearing increased by 16 percent. What’s worse, pregnant teenagers often don’t see a doctor until the time of delivery. Another serious problem surrounding teen sexual intercourse is the probability of AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Each year, three million teens are infected with STDs. Among 14- to 20-year-olds, chlamydia is the most common. It has no obvious symptoms, and can cause infertility i...

Jewellery Design Essay

The topic of this paper introduces jewellery design and development in Asia, and the problem which will be solved in this report is â€Å"why and how has Asian jewellery has changed over time and what has influenced its development?† Jewellery design is a relatively new industry although it derives from ancient activities such as goldsmith. Nowadays, jewellery design has been developed into a modern art that utilizes numerous skills. In this paper, Asian jewellery design will be researched and analyzed due to its unique style and different material chosen that attracts people all over the world. Specifically, the evolution of Asian jewellery design will be mentioned with a brief introduction of some jewellery in different period of time, while several design principles will be illustrated. In addition, the impact of the evolution and the reason why the evolution happens will also be discussed in the report. Moreover, some relevant content, such as famous designers and famous wearers, will be included, as well as the modern market trends. The research of the topic question will be conducted first by using library research, including analysis of historical records and documents. After gathering all data and information relevant to the topic, an analysis of the change and development of Asian jewellery design will be conducted in order to identify the evolution process and the impact of the Asian jewelry design. This paper itself has been divided into sections for ease of reading and explanation of the importance of cross-media promotion. In section 2, the research question will be completely introduced, and the literature review will be included in section 3. After that, the research method will be discussed in section 4, and an analysis and synthesis will be shown in section 5 and 6. In section 7 and 8, there will be research results and conclusion. Research Question This research paper was developed as part of CQUniversity’s Master of Creative Enterprise’s Arts Administration Research course requirements. The topic of Asian Jewellery is of particular personal interest to the researcher. This paper considers why and how has Asian jewellery has changed over time and what has influenced its development? It will also consider why people like or dislike certain styles of jewellery and the people and companies which design the jewellery. This paper also considers how jewellery has become an essential fashion accessory for the contemporary person. How it complements clothing and a person’s overall look. A comparison of styles and influences will also be undertaken. Different styles are also considered and as part of this topic, cultural influences (countries) and their effect on designs and style of every-day jewellery. Literature Review Generally speaking, jewelry may have several meanings, including status symbol, accessories, meaningful symbols, etc. People living in top class of a society normally wear many different expensive jewelries types every day, which can be considered as a status symbol showing other people how rich they are. In addition, normal people wear jewelries mainly as accessories in order to make them look prettier. Moreover, some religion will let their believers wear jewelries to show their faithfulness and to make them believe that they are totally blessed and prevented from any harmful things. In this case, jewelries can be also taken as a symbol of group membership. In Asia, specifically, there is thousands of years’ history of jewelry manufacture with several different uses among various cultures, especially in India and China. In ancient Asian cultures, jewelry was normally worn by women in order to show their status, beauty and wealth. It is recorded that the history of jewelry making can be traced back to over 5,000 years ago, which has been regarded as the longest continuous legacy in the area of jewelry. Jewelry making started in the Indus Valley Civilization which is located in the position of Pakistan at present. (REF) In China, jewelry making started around 5,000 years ago, the same period as India. However, it did not become popular until the spread of Buddhism 2,000 years ago. In China Material Speaking of material, in ancient China, silver was used more frequently than gold. In early Chinese jewelry, blue kingfisher feathers were introduced and were tied onto jewelry as a kind of decoration. Later, in jewelry design, blue gems and glass showed up, and they were added into jewelry. However, in terms of stone, jade was the undoubtedly most popular material. An ancient Chinese says like that: â€Å"gold is estimable, but jade is priceless.† The reason people favored jade is its quality, including hardness, durability, smooth, beauty, etc. The design of the first jade jewelry in ancient China was quite simple. However, the design evolved drastically as time goes on. Even, it is evident that compound milling machines were involved in the jade jewelry produced between the 4th and 7th centuries BC. Types There were numerous different types of jewelry in China. Surprisingly, very few earrings were found by modern archaeologists. The most common jewelry is amulets that normally cut with some traditional Chinese symbols or Buddhism symbols in order to keep the wearer safe. In addition, there are also differences between men’s jewelry and women’s jewelry. For instance, women’s head decoration is very detailed and complex, mainly made by gold and silver and other items such as jade, while men’s only decorative jewelry is the hat button, made by silver or gold that showed the man’s rank. Symbolize Moreover, in terms of the symbols cut on the jewelry, there were some common traditions in ancient China. For instance, the long (dragon) and Fenghuang (phoenix) were the symbol of power and the long (dragon) mean was the power of nature and universe, wisdom and longevity. Fenghuang (phoenix) was the King of Birds, that is a legendary bird, and it is meaning five virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sincerity. In Chinese history, normal people could not use the dragon symbols on their jewelry because the famous five clawed long (dragon) was the unique symbol representing the Chinese emperor. Also, the symbol of Fenghuang (phoenix), which is phoenix, was another royal symbol, representing the empress. Citizens were not allowed to use such symbols, or they would be sentenced to death.

People who influenced rizal

When Racial was a young boy he would always spend time with his older brother, Pacing. He learned so many things from his brother. Pacing made a great impact on Racal's life. As a child, Racial had so many interest, he was into painting, sculpting, reading, writing and many more. He grew up in a family that is exposed to books and there he learned to love reading and writing. One of the most important person that contributed to Racal's being was his mother, Deodorant Alonso.During the time of Racal's mother, it was very unlikely for a woman to reach college level, but she was able to reach college and was an expert in mathematics. Jose Racial learned from his mother about the ways of life and on being a good citizen to his country. There would be no Jose Racial if it was not for Deodorant Alonso. Because of Racal's intelligence, he was sent to Banyan, a more advanced city in Laguna, and later on went to Atone Municipal nag Manila for advanced learning.There were parts of Jose Racal's novels that was inspired by incidents that happened in Racal's time. One incident that led Jose Racial to write about Isis in one of his novels was the incident that happened to his mother. Deodorant Alonso was accused of poisoning her sister-in-law and was punished without any proof. And another Incident that was told to Jose Racial by his brother was the execution of the SOMBRERO, an acronym denoting the surnames of the priests that was executed.

The Companys Strengths Through the Implementation of Its Strategic

The Companys Strengths Through the Implementation of Its Strategic The Companys Strengths Through the Implementation of Its Strategic Approaches – Case Study Example ï » ¿ Hansgrohe AG is a 109-year old company that has built a solid reputation in the sanitation sector as a leading innovator in kitchen and bathroom fixtures, particularly mixers, showers and shower systems. The company prides itself in creating original products that aim to define a more functional, more comfortable and more beautiful state of the art for bathroom appointments and fixtures. Hansgrohe products are visible in prominent prestige projects among which are the giant luxury cruiser â€Å"Queen Mary II†, in Terminal 5 of Heathrow Airport in London, and in the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the tallest man-made structure ever built. Other sites include the Chancellor’s office in Berlin, New York’s Yoo luxury apartments, and the Masdar City Institute of Science and Technology in Abu Dhabi. The Company was founded by Hans Grohe in Schilltach in 1901. Water as an element has always been a passion for the founder, as well as a commitment to accuracy, craftsmanship, and the meticulous working style attributed to his orientation in the Black Forest. These are values with which he imbibed his Company are the defining features that have made Hansgrohe the internationally renowned company it is today. Hansgrohe is a private shareholding company and is therefore not listed for public trading in the stock market. Its shareholders are Masco Corporation (USA) which has 68 percent ownership in the company, and the rest (32 percent) is controlled by the Klaus Grohe family. Staying private is part of the management control and adherence to the standards of Hans Grohe that have defined the Company since its inception. With a nominal capital of â‚ ¬ 61 million, the Company realized its most recent sales revenue of â‚ ¬ 668 million and earnings before interest and tax (EBIT) of â‚ ¬ 110 million. Profit realized for the year amounted to â‚ ¬78 million, for a net profit margin of 12 percent, at a time when the financial crisis has rendered double digit margins, let along positive profit, a rarity. The Company has four brands by which it showcases its creativity and innovativeness. Its mother brand, Hansgrohe, has made a mark in innovative excellence in fittings in showers. Its second brand, Axor, is known for its exclusive designer collections for individual bathroom solutions. A third brand, Pharo, arrives at wellbeing solutions for the bathroom, and finally Pontos is renowned for its grey water recycling systems for the sustainable handling of resource water. The various brands showcase the Company’s strengths through the implementation of its strategic approaches, namely (1) innovation jump, (2) global speed and channel management, (3) productivity, (4) internationalization and streamlining of business practices, and (5) organizational development and reinforcement of management teams. In the assessment of its annual performance, Hansgrohe’s productivity was seen to have increased by +1% with a reduction in working capital by -12%. It was also determined that sales revenue per employee increased to â‚ ¬ 218,000, which is attributable to the positive results of the Company’s personnel incentive programmes as well as streamlining efforts that eliminated unnecessary costs and expenses. In the emerging markets, the Company’s sales increased by +12%, redounding to an overall contribution of international sales amounting to 80 percent of the Company’s total revenues. Of the total sales figure, 34 percent is attributable to the introduction of new products with significant innovative features. Hansgrohe has emerged from its humble beginnings and is now a multinational corporation with ten production facilities in three continents, as well as sales companies and support locations in 36 countries. Its worldwide presence in the sanitation industry is distinguished by innovative products and excellent support service (Hansgrohe website).

Multi-draft narrative of Mr Nobody Essay Example

Multi Multi-draft narrative of Mr Nobody Paper Multi-draft narrative of Mr Nobody Paper Directed and written by Jack Van Dermal, Mr.. Nobody is a brilliant film that portrays the timeless theme of lifes choices and possibilities in a refreshing and dazzling manner. Despite the complex and unconventional narrative structure of the plot, Dermal demonstrates his extraordinary skills of storytelling through presenting to the audience a magnificent film with a form more complicated than Tom Testers Run Lola Run and a theme broader than Peter Hotpots primary focus on love in Sliding Doors. This essay will analyze how the the seven key conventions defined by Borrowed (2002) are defied by or applied on the films multi-draft narrative. The film begins with a montage showing four deaths of Memo at the age of 34him lying in morgue, him drowning in his car under water, him being shot in the bathtub, and him waking in an explosion of a space shuttle. The quick scenes are then closely followed by 118-year-old Memo waking up in 2092, looking as if he is confused over his own past. His memory appears to have paused in 2009 as he claims to be 34 years old. With the help of his doctor, Memo begins to recount his whole life right room the start. These parts of Memos story, his childhood and old age, are in a somewhat linear narration. The voice-over of young Memo explains that the unborn children know everything about the past and future until the Angels of Oblivion place a finger on their lips and make them forget. Being missed by the angels, Memo chooses his own parents and comes to the world knowing everything. He knows, from the very beginning, that certain things are meant to be. He also ponders upon existence and the irreversibility of time, which are brought up in the later parts of the elm over and over. At the age of 9, Memo realizes the difficulty of choosing and faces the first crossroad of his life, from which point the film complicates into a multi-draft narrative. We cannot go back. Thats why its hard to choose. You have to make the right choice. As long as you dont choose, everything remains possible. With that in mind, little Memo chooses not to make a choice between two kinds of dessert or among three of his future partners. The audiences see Memo marrying all three of them at the similar age but in different lives. All parallel narrative begins when Memo faces the most critical decision of his lifedeciding which parent he should live with after their separation. This can be seen as the first branching point of Memos lives. Memo marries three women, Anna, Elise and Jean, has different Jobs and dies in different incidents all in similar age, indicating that the film conforms to Bordellos fifth convention: forking paths often run parallel. In the first narrative, Memo follows his mother and falls in love with Anna. Choosing to stay with his father in the second ND third narratives, Memo falls for Elise and Jean respectively. In one of these two narratives Memo writes his own novel about traveling towards Mars on a shuttle, which makes the fourth narrative. Each of these forking paths is linear on its own, keeping to Bordellos first convention: each path, after it diverges, adheres to a strict In these parallel narratives, Memo keeps changing the courses whenever he encounters unpleasant incidences, such as the several deaths mentioned above. For example, in the second narrative, Memo falls in love with Elise who does not return is affection. Heartbroken, he gets into a horrible bike accident and becomes paralyzed. Yet as soon as the viceroy says Vive got to get out of here. Go back. Before the accident, the audiences watch the accident rewind and Memo making a slightly different decision then eventually marrying the girl of his dreams. The protagonist defies death and reverses time. Here, the film adheres to the sixth convention: the forking paths presuppose the previous ones, as Memo makes the wiser choice in the second narrative. On the whole, Memo wants to reinvent his own life while the doctor and the interviewer aim to make sense of Memos stories and find out which of them is true. In this sense, it can be said that the characters of Mr. Nobody are somewhat goal- oriented. Everything you say is contradictory. You cant have been in one place and another at the same time. Of all those lives, which one is the right one? asks the interviewer. This line shows that the film is self-reflective as it is clearly aware of the nature of its unconventional narrative. The forking paths of Memo consist of recurrent characters and background conditions across the different lines of action (Waded, 2009) which is Bordellos third convention. For instance, whichever path Memo takes, he always runs into Anna, the woman who loves him as much as he does her. Not only does it show the intersection of the multiplicity, it also highlights the love theme of the filmone cannot possibly be happy with someone if the affection is not mutual. That is why Memo is not happy with either Elise or Jean. As Memo changes the course of his lives repeatedly, the audiences could not help but ender which fragment is his real life and whether the things he says are true at all, especially when all his alternative lives literally collide together towards the end of Memos recollection. In the narrative where he stays with his dad, marries but loses Elise to an accident, Memo escapes the death of drowning that he would have had in another narrative, but is told by his neighbor that he is drowned. The Memo in yet another narrative who is typing in a house then finds himself in danger of drowning as the house is suddenly flooded with water. Multiple circular narratives merge into nee. Towards the end, the seemingly linear narrative of the entire film is broken down as 118-year-old Memo tells the interviewer that neither of them really exists, because they are only imagined by a nine year old child faced with an impossible choice. Memo eventually dies at the time he has predicted he would, but as soon as he does, time rewinds quickly all the way to his childhood, echoing with Memos earlier statement to his younger self, For me, time is inverted. I start at the end of the story and go toward the beginning and confirming that he has truly always known everything about the past as well as the future. The film ends, leaving its audiences In conclusion, Mr. Nobody complies with four out of seven key conventions of Bordellos, showing that it goes beyond traditional narrative norms. The narrative might be more closed than open in each single forking path, but it is definitely open in terms of the whole film. The mysteries of Memos life have not been solved, leaving the audiences with plenty information gaps and room for interpretation. Nonetheless, the director has made his point rather explicitly through Memos answer o the interviewers confusion, Each of these lives is the right one!

Definition and Examples of Modality in Grammar

Definition and Examples of Modality in Grammar In grammar and semantics, modality refers to linguistic devices that indicate the degree to which an observation is possible, probable, likely, certain, permitted, or prohibited. In English, these notions are commonly (though not exclusively) expressed by modal auxiliaries, such as can, might, should, and will. They are sometimes combined with not. Martin J. Endley suggests that the simplest way to explain  modality  is  to say that it has to do with the stance the speaker adopts toward some situation expressed in an utterance...[M]odality reflects the speakers attitude toward the situation being described (Linguistic Perspectives on English Grammar, 2010). Deborah Cameron illustrates with an example: [Modality] is what makes the difference between a factual assertion like  unicorns never existed, and a more guarded view, such as  it seems unlikely that unicorns could ever have existed- or a bolder claim like  the existence of unicorns must always have been a myth.  Modality, then, is a resource  speakers  and writers use when they are staking claims to knowledge: it allows them to formulate different kinds of claims (e.g., assertions, opinions, hypotheses, speculations) and indicate how committed they are to those claims. (The Teachers Guide to Grammar, Oxford University Press, 2007) Indicating Modality Grammatically Just as tense indicates a time aspect of a verb, words that are used to show modality indicate the mood of the sentence- that is, how factual or assertive the statement is- and it can be done in any number of ways, including with adjectives. Martin J. Endley in Linguistic Perspectives on English Grammar  explains: Thus, a situation might be described as  possible, probable, necessary, or  certain. The  noun  counterparts of these adjectives also express modality so that a situation can be described as a  possibility, a  probability, a  necessity, or a  certainty. Moreover, it is possible to use ordinary  lexical verbs  to convey modality....And think  about the difference between saying that you  know  something and saying that you  believe  something. Such differences are essentially a matter of modality. Finally, English also contains certain semi-fixed lexical phrases (e.g.,  rumor has it) that are, basically, modal expressions.  (IAP, 2010) Other terms that express modality are marginal modals, such as need, ought to, dare, or used to. In Depth: Types of Modality The range of possibilities expressed when using modality is a broad spectrum, ranging from not very likely to very likely; to express these different levels, modality comes with named gradations, as explained by authors  Gà ¼nter Radden and Renà © Dirven, in Cognitive English Grammar:   Modality is concerned with the speakers assessment of, or attitude towards, the potentiality of a state of affairs. Modality, therefore, relates to different worlds. Assessments of potentiality, as in You must be right, relate to the world of knowledge and reasoning. This type of modality is known as epistemic modality. Modal attitudes apply to the world of things and social interaction. This type of modality is known as root modality. Root modality comprises three subtypes: deontic modality, intrinsic modality and disposition modality. Deontic modality is concerned with the speakers directive attitude towards an action to be carried out, as in the obligation You must go now. Intrinsic modality is concerned with potentialities arising from intrinsic qualities of a thing or circumstances, as in The meeting can be canceled, i.e. it is possible for the meeting to be canceled. Disposition modality is concerned with a things or a persons intrinsic potential of being actualised; in particu lar abilities. Thus, when you have the ability to play the guitar you will potentially do so....Modal verbs have a special status among modal expressions: they ground a situation in potential reality. (John Benjamins, 2007)

Revolutionary Leadership in Russian Revolution and the Arab Spring Essay

Revolutionary Leadership in Russian Revolution and the Arab Spring - Essay Example To start with, the general complexity of the given cases is the reason for drawing on their similarities and differences. In fact, it is not right to comprehend all the three revolutions in Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia as a general phenomenon. Moreover, it is hard to comprehend an overall process of the Russian revolution in a sketch too. Thus, it is necessary to determine the key leadership and the starting conditions of these four countries in order to provide any comparison between them. On the one hand, Anderson (2011) believes that Arab countries are different among all in terms of their economic ground and social fabric. In other words, by referring to the Arab Spring countries we consider three different in their internal environment states (Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya). For instance, the main forces for change in Tunisia were the local trade union (UGTT), lawyers, and journalists; but in Egypt, the revolution was headed by linked to the political opposition the April 6 Movement. H ence, the leadership of the Arab Spring is not the same not only in terms of concrete personalities but also in the social background of these forces. Furthermore, the key problems that encouraged these countries to change are also not the same. In the days prevailing the revolution, Tunisia was a tourist-oriented and powerful. In fact, the revolution in this country emerged as a response to the way â€Å"the Ben Ali family plundered the economy and repressed all autonomous attempts at political expressions†.

Ethical Issues on Abortion Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ethical Issues on Abortion - Term Paper Example Catholics are seen as being at the forefront in trying to raise objections to abortion since they are pro-life crusaders’. The ethical issues on abortion not only affect centred on religion and politics but also on the clinical profession (Clark and Rakestraw1995, P. 26-29). This is because it impacts on the work performance of clinicians in making decisions as to whether to carry out the abortion on the patient or not. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the ethical issue regarding abortion. It will how to discuss how best the ethics of abortion can be responded to both socially and politically. The paper will conclude by identifying what practical lifestyle actions I might take to limit my Abortion in America became legal in every state after the 1973 Supreme Court’s ruling in a case of Roe v. Wade (Hinman 2009, p. 6-8). It is reported that prior to this landmark ruling, the legality of abortion was decided by each state. During this period, abortion was illegal in 20 states but illegal in 30 states. The Supreme Court ruling in Roe V. Wade established that â€Å"the right of personal privacy includes the abortion decision, but that right is not unqualified and must be considered against important state interests in regulation† (Hinman 2009, p5). This decision indeed did not go well with the pro-life crusaders mainly drawn from religious leaders in the US that saw the ruling to undermine the sanctity of life, which is against the biblical teaching. Since the time of this ruling, several cases of abortion have been reported in many states according to Center for Disease Control and Alan Guttmacher Institute Statistics precipitating ethical questions. For in stance, data collected by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) in 2000 reveals that more than 1.31 million abortions occurred. This figure was, however, a reduction in comparison with the 1996 statistics in which 1.36 abortion cases were reported.  Ã‚  

Business Intelligence Report (BIR) about the company's management Essay

Business Intelligence Report (BIR) about the company's management practices - Intorduction and Conclusion - Essay Example Whole Food Market had been experiencing heavy rise in profits since Jan 2001. The hard work of its team members and strong leadership at the helm of affairs helped the company prosper. Whole Foods products include only natural and organic products. These products include everything from produce, bakery items, cheese, coffee, meat, seafood, body products, supplements, wine, floral, house hold cleaning products and pet products. Their marketing is being taken care by a team of 45 proficient marketers and the employee pool is a rich in expertise and a diverse pool. All in all, Whole food has a solid ensemble in all areas of its management. Organization Structure 2. Organizational Structure The Organizational Structure section can include a chart but should include an explanation of the company's organizational structure and how that impacts the company's performance. Whole Foods Market depends on organizational structure to ensure performance that would impact employees and customers. S ince January 2001 Whole Food Market has experienced increase in sales, profits, and stock prices. The success of the company has flourished from the hard work of team members and strong leadership throughout the company.

No topic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 14

No topic - Assignment Example In an attempt to resolve the scarcity concern, reliance on chemically processed substitutes or genetically engineered crop products could emerge in the economy but these could have adverse health implications. Use of chemically processed foods may intoxicate people while genetically engineered foods may alter change cell structure to alter people’s body physiology. Farmers would also lose their jobs and this would mean their lost earnings. Following the loss, poverty rate is likely to increase and its effects such as inability to meet social needs are likely. With inability to meet care costs, quality of life is likely to deteriorate and escalate problems that could arise from scarcity of food or use of chemically processed foods (Ball State University 9, 10). Low life expectancy is another anticipated effect of the concern, as residents of the state would suffer from famine. This could also lead to high mortality rate, especially among poor members of the society who have bee n relying on crop farming for their income (Doblhammer, Berg, and Lumey n.p.). Doblhammer, Gabriele, Berg, Gerard, and Lumey, L. â€Å"Long-term effects of famine on life expectancy: A re-analysis of the great Finish famine of 1866-1868.† IZA. February 2011. Web. April 2, 2015. < http://ftp.iza.org/dp5534.pdf

Reflective learning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Reflective learning - Essay Example I also made them believe that raising funds is not really hard as many of my peers thought. I made them understand that there are a lot of ways to raise funds we just have to be creative and exert a little effort to raise it. I introduce the idea of a garage sale with a party. The items that will be on sale will be the things that our neighbours are ready to dispose. To make the story short, we were able to exceed our objective to raise fund for our project while having fun at the same time. The other experience I had about leading a group was during a school project where I was assigned as a project leader. I was hesitant at first because I was anxious that I might end up doing the whole project myself if my team members will not work and cooperate. It was not as hard as I thought if one will just know how to push â€Å"the right button† or motivate the group members to work. Before these projects were realized, the process and dynamics of getting it done was quite tough. It was an interplay of leadership, organizational skill, team work and resolving personal issue among the members in the group. But the main component is leadership on how to direct the energy of the team to commit and realize our objective (Kayser and Melcher 2007). It was not easy asking people of my age to do certain things that it made me think how to go about it and in the process learned several things about myself. I learned that in getting people commit to do certain things, I have to get along with them very well especially if it is a volunteer work just like our community project or a school work where one cannot direct others because everybody is in equal footing (we are all students). I learned that I do pretty well in this department that it is almost effortless on my part. But I have to admit that there are things about me that is un-leader like that I have to change such as my tendency to procrastinate. I observed that when I procrastinate, my team members also did the s ame. There are also certain things about my behaviour that I did not realize to be a leadership trait. Knowing that my team members in our community project are not being paid to do it, I invoked their higher sense of achieving and contributing good when I told them that what we are doing is for the community and that we will become an invariable part of it because we worked hard for a project dedicated to our community. This is actually a trait of transformational leadership (Judge and Piccolo 2004). My good interpersonal skill also enabled me to effectively address an issue with our group. The person I assigned to go door to door in one of our streets suddenly did not show up. I was worried. But instead of passing judgment at him to be lazy and non-committal, I inquired what happened. I learned that my team member had a medical emergency at home because a sister has to be rushed to the hospital. When the issue was already done, my team member was very motivated to go door to door to collect things for our garage sale and this would not have been possible had I judged him earlier. On areas that I need to improve my behaviour about leadership, I believe it would be my organizational and administrative skills. I have to admit that I am disorganized as a leader. I realized this during the garage sale itself because I had hard time putting up the event. The event could have been better with more attendees and more funds could have been raised if I had a better

The critical perspectives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The critical perspectives - Essay Example As Jeremy (2011) points out that after the collapse of financial system, the efforts were directed towards repairing the system without realizing that the â€Å"system itself needed to change†. This book by the Nobel Prize winning economist appeals to rethink and reconsider the present capitalist structure in the markets. The author talks about how overspending and low savings have brought down the financial meltdown. He is very skeptic about the conditions prevalent in housing market. He criticizes how low interest rates to boost consumption and monetary expansion have brought lax control over the economy. Stiglitz predicts that it will take a long time before USA markets fully recover as he calls it â€Å"Japanese style recovery†, where markets will face low aggregate output and low wages. In his opinion America needs to fix its macroeconomic structure through increasing savings, reducing consumption and more allocation of funds towards issues such as town planning an d climate change. Turner (2010) states in a review that Stiglitz has made it the sources of the current crisis very obvious for those who argue that the current crisis was â€Å"unforseen†. He criticises the policies of Bush and Obama for bringing the economy to collapse in 2008. Stiglitz has criticized Obama for not developing a clear vision and strategy to improve the conditions of the economy. In fact Stiglitz accuses his lack of control over the economy which left the economy even more vulnerable at the hands of those running the financial sector than ever before. Stiglitz is also skeptical about how members of Bush’s administration continued their role in present government and are not rectifying the errors that created huge ups and downs in the business cycle previously. He has mentioned that the policies are made in a manner that increases the burden on taxpayers in case of any loss or bailout situation. Moreover Freefall also criticizes the role of retired bank ers in policy formulation and regulation of the financial sector, which according to Stiglitz has created a greater imbalance in power. Stiglitz strongly advocates imposition of stringent regulations and restructuring of banks. He accuses Obama administration for come under the influence of finance tycoons and failing to exercise control over the banks and other financial institutions which became too giant to handle a crisis. He still believes that large banks need to be broken up in order to right-size them; an example is Citigroup, which is too huge in size to handle. He also is dejects the use of mortgage securitization, and encourages to police derivatives. Analysis Economic Policies Stiglitz considers Keynesian economics to be the solution for the current prevalent problems, however there are a number of factors that place a question mark on this proposition. Firstly we need to understand that in order to predict the impact of an injection of funds into the economy, we need to know the GDP multiplier. This GDP multiplier is dependant over the banking system because they are the ones to extend credit to the private sector. Now if the banking system is itself so weak and in need of funds, it is difficult to say that it can bring the economy out of recession. Moreover we also need to understand the flaws of government control, an example here is for people to decide if they want to rely on private pensions or

Reflective learning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Reflective learning - Essay Example I also made them believe that raising funds is not really hard as many of my peers thought. I made them understand that there are a lot of ways to raise funds we just have to be creative and exert a little effort to raise it. I introduce the idea of a garage sale with a party. The items that will be on sale will be the things that our neighbours are ready to dispose. To make the story short, we were able to exceed our objective to raise fund for our project while having fun at the same time. The other experience I had about leading a group was during a school project where I was assigned as a project leader. I was hesitant at first because I was anxious that I might end up doing the whole project myself if my team members will not work and cooperate. It was not as hard as I thought if one will just know how to push â€Å"the right button† or motivate the group members to work. Before these projects were realized, the process and dynamics of getting it done was quite tough. It was an interplay of leadership, organizational skill, team work and resolving personal issue among the members in the group. But the main component is leadership on how to direct the energy of the team to commit and realize our objective (Kayser and Melcher 2007). It was not easy asking people of my age to do certain things that it made me think how to go about it and in the process learned several things about myself. I learned that in getting people commit to do certain things, I have to get along with them very well especially if it is a volunteer work just like our community project or a school work where one cannot direct others because everybody is in equal footing (we are all students). I learned that I do pretty well in this department that it is almost effortless on my part. But I have to admit that there are things about me that is un-leader like that I have to change such as my tendency to procrastinate. I observed that when I procrastinate, my team members also did the s ame. There are also certain things about my behaviour that I did not realize to be a leadership trait. Knowing that my team members in our community project are not being paid to do it, I invoked their higher sense of achieving and contributing good when I told them that what we are doing is for the community and that we will become an invariable part of it because we worked hard for a project dedicated to our community. This is actually a trait of transformational leadership (Judge and Piccolo 2004). My good interpersonal skill also enabled me to effectively address an issue with our group. The person I assigned to go door to door in one of our streets suddenly did not show up. I was worried. But instead of passing judgment at him to be lazy and non-committal, I inquired what happened. I learned that my team member had a medical emergency at home because a sister has to be rushed to the hospital. When the issue was already done, my team member was very motivated to go door to door to collect things for our garage sale and this would not have been possible had I judged him earlier. On areas that I need to improve my behaviour about leadership, I believe it would be my organizational and administrative skills. I have to admit that I am disorganized as a leader. I realized this during the garage sale itself because I had hard time putting up the event. The event could have been better with more attendees and more funds could have been raised if I had a better

Interoffice Memo Essay Example for Free

Interoffice Memo Essay Imagine that it is 1976, and you are an administrator in a human services organization. You have just learned of the ruling in the case,Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California. Write a 350- to 500-word summary in which you create an interoffice memo for all employees that explains this legislation. In your memo, also include the following information: †¢How the Tarasoff case has affected ethical decision making for human service professionals †¢How the case affects the human services code of ethics.   Format your summary consistent with APA guidelines. Click the Assignment Files tab to submit your assignment.

Impact of the Technological Revolution

Impact of the Technological Revolution 1 INTRODUCTION The role of technological revolution has touched every aspect of peoples lives from shopping to banking. The changes have great impact on services quality and banking activities has enabled the banks to compete in the world markets (Siam 1999-2004, 2006). The banking industry worldwide is witnessing a growing technology driven self-service by way of electronic banking (e-banking) through interacting with customers as a way of increasing productivity. The use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) helps the banks in making strategic decisions by enabling better alignment of business to build better relationship with customers. ICT has enabled banks to provide the following services: Automated Teller Machines (ATM) that have been installed at convenient places for customers to access their accounts anytime. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) that allows different organisations to exchange transactional, financial and business information between their computer systems. Plastic Cards designed to pay for goods and services without necessarily using cash and also to withdraw cash from ATMs located worldwide. Electronic Clearing Service (ECS) is a facility that allows fund transfer from one bank to another electronically. It can be used for bulk or repetitive transfers either by institutions for dividend distribution, salary, etc. and pension, or by individuals for regular payments to utility, loan repayment, etc. Internet Banking as a channel of Electronic Banking (E-banking) allows the customer to do transactions through the banks web page in a flexible mode, i.e. at anytime and anywhere. The flexibility of E-banking is a major benefit to customers because they are able to access the banking services at the comfort of their homes or offices and no more queuing at banks. For the banking sector, E-banking is a big investment on capital and resource though the initial acquisition of relevant infrastructure, standardisation and security are expensive, especially for small banks in developing countries, but not a big problem for big banks in developed countries. These also have to follow the standard legislative and regulatory issues set within a country to protect customers rights, especially the concerning data protection. 1.1 Background of Study The role of internet has become unavoidable to business and society. Businesses and governments worldwide are always working on how to better utilise the internet in order to increase their penetration into the global market (Khan, Mahapatra Sreekumar (2009). Banking sector has seen the use of Information Technology (IT) a better way of reducing the traditional way of investing and moving along the modern technological changes in order to meet up with the global market. The growing changes in technology bring economical and social consequences on our daily life and these changes brought about the Internet. The Internet provides services like, World Wide Web (WWW), Automated Teller Machines (ATM), Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) which are the core business services of E-banking. The banking sector has embarked on internet banking systems to enable their customers to access their accounts globally and in a flexible mode through their websites. Thi s move to internet banking has seen banks reducing long queues as some customers can serve themselves either through the ATMs or through the website, depending on the type of service they want to perform. Though the banking has embarked on internet banking systems, it has not totally abolished the traditional banking activities. This is to allow those customers who need face to face help to still come to banks to get help on whatever activities or services they need either because they do not trust the web or because they are unable to do not know the technology used and fear to make mistakes. Internet is used world wide for different things, some good and some malicious. This then brings in the issue of trust on the part of both the web site owners and users. Some users still prefer to go and queue in the banks because either they do not trust the web services or are unfamiliar with the systems and therefore feel uncomfortable to use e-banking. Trust should be built in order to encourage more customers to use the web site for their banking service needs. Trust can be categorised into tangible and intangible trust. Tangible trust is an implied trust that can be addressed by the use of digital certificates and SSL protocols and service level granularity. On the other hand intangible trust is something that can be formed or reinforced and is subjective, emotional and has a rational component. Trust can build or destroy the organisations reputation. 1.2 Motivation of Study There has been considerable work carried out in the field of e-banking/e-commerce trust (Smith French 2005); (Khalil 2007), however, there was a gap in their knowledge of cultural gap, especially in developing countries like Botswana. The motivation on this research is as follows: The need to show the importance of localisation of e-banking site as e-banking is a new phenomenon in Botswana. To make further studies on cultures of two ethnic groups within the same country as there have been very little research on this area. This is not the case with developed countries as the studies show that there has been localisation of e-banking to suit their target markets (Singer, Baradwaj and Avery 2007). 1.3 Aim The main aim of this research is to examine how the Tswana and Kalanga ethnic groups of Botswana culturally perceive trust on a B2C e-banking website and to design an e-banking website for each ethnic group. 1.4 Objectives The following objectives will be achieved through this study: A research will be carried out on how cultural background influences the trust and use of e-banking services. To relate the findings of the research in the design process of a web sites that suits the culture for Tswana and Kalanga ethnic groups. 1.5 Research Questions The research study aims to test the following key questions: What is the impact of culture on the contents of e-banking site? How does culture affect online trust in e-banking? Is it necessary to consider culture, trust and usability in designing e-banking website? How does Tswana and Kalanga cultural differences affect e-banking? 1.6 Methodology The research employs both primary and secondary data. Primary data will be collected through a structured survey which will be an online. The online survey will be through email where a link will be sent to the respondents in Botswana and UK. This method is chosen because it is flexible in that the respondents answer the questionnaires at their own free time and in a flexible mode of their computers. The other important thing is that it is cheaper to administer and responses are received more quickly and also that if there are any errors in the questionnaire it is easier to correct the errors. 2 E-SERVICES AND CULTURE WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP 2.1 E-Commerce and E-Banking The development of Information Technology and the advent of internet have enabled traditional business activities to change into Electronic Commerce (E-commerce). E-commerce is a process that allows businesses and customers (B2C) to exchange goods and services electronically anytime anywhere, and it includes banking, stocks and bonds, retail shopping, movie rentals, etc. E-Commerce has opened a global market where businesses can reach their respective customers quickly and cost effectively (Li et al 2009). For trading to be successful in this virtual world, trust must be considered vital not forgetting culture. E-commerce includes inter-organisational marketing process in which the following relationships are observed: B2B (business to business), B2C (business to consumer), and C2C (consumer to consumer). E-banking sometimes called electronic banking or internet banking is a system that allows people to conduct transactions and manage their accounts without necessarily going to the brick and mortar banks. For customers using internet banking to access their account, they need to have personal accounts at the respective banks websites. For e-banking to be effective, banks should invest on IT infrastructure like Hardware, Software, Networking which include connection to the internet. Automated Teller Machines (ATM) and personal computers have reduced the cost in favour of banks on paper work and labour force since customers use self services offered by banks. However, it should be noted that there are still some people who would want to be served by bank officials either because he/she does not know how to operate the banks system, does not trust it or want face-to-face interaction with bank officials. 2.1.1 Benefits of E-Banking Electronic banking or online banking is the most popular means of e-commerce for millions people worldwide. Most banking products and services are now offered over the Internet. Banks have invested in robust information technology practices and secure-transaction technologies that have made electronic banking trustworthy. This has also created some benefits on e-banking as follows: Convenience and flexibility as the customer is able to pay bills, shop and transfer money from anywhere at any time suitable to the customer as long as the customer has access to a personal computer and internet connectivity. There is no strictness of business hours as the services are available 24 hours every day unlike in the traditional brick and mortar where a customer has to observe working hours. Customers are able to manage their customers as they are able to access their accounts and therefore can cross check their accounts anytime. To the customer the only cost associated with e-banking is the cost of the time spent online which is usually charged by the internet provider. There is also time and money saving as customers do not have to travel distances to their respective banks unless on crucial issues. 2.1.2 Limitations of E-Banking As well as electronic banking have advantages there are some limitations too. Below are some limitations on electronic banking. Some bank websites have too much information that confuses the customers and the customer may feel it is a waste of time as he/she does not get the information that he/she wants and may never bother to visit the website again. The financial needs of the customer may not be quickly be predicted and therefore will take some time to be solved, which is an inconvenience to the customer. Hacking and identity theft are on the rise this calls for a certain amount of trust placed on the banks by electronic banking customers. The system should be able to stand against hacking. There is no Face-to-face interaction in electronic banking and some customers still need this type of service that are observed in a traditional bank to quickly solve or answer customers queries. In case of internet failure the customer is unable to withdraw money from his/her account and unable to even use the ATMs or credit/debit cards. Some banks charge for ATM usage by non-customers, therefore if a customer stays where there is not ATM for his/her bank, then he/she will be charged to using the facility of another bank. 2.1.3 Security and Trust Security issues are a major concern for everybody using internet whether for banking purposes or not. There is an increase of security risks in the banking sector as their systems are exposed to risky environments. Confidentiality, integrity, privacy and availability are the core areas of security that banks and financial institutions must address (Jide Awe 2006). This calls for banks and financial services authority to plan ahead in monitoring and managing the security threats. The security threats are classified in three categories; breaches with serious threats (e.g. fraud), breaches caused by casual hackers (e.g. web sites defacement or services denial (e.g. causes of web sites to crash) and flaws in systems design (e.g. genuine users able to see or use another users accounts). These threats cause serious financial, legal and reputational implications to the banks affected. Banks and financial institutions need to put in place security measures to respond to these threats. The security measures need constant update in order for them to cope with the ever increasing and advanced threats. The banks should also have sufficient staff who have security expertise in order to keep on checking and updating the banks systems. These threats bring in customers lack of trust on the electronic banking that is why some customers prefer to queue at banks to get services that they would have otherwise done through the internet. Trust should be built in order to encourage more customers to use the web site for their banking service needs. McKnight, Cummings and Chervany (1998) define trust as an individuals beliefs about the extent to which a target is likely to behave in a way that is benevolent, competent, honest, or predictable in a situation. Trust can be categorised into tangible and intangible trust. Tangible trust is an implied trust that can be addressed by the use of digital certificates and SSL protocols and service level granularity. On the other hand intangible trust is something that can be formed or reinforced and is subjective, emotional and has a rational component. Trust can build or destroy the organisations reputation. Trust is very important and should be the critical area for each bank to consider because if customers do not trust a bank then the bank will be out of business. Trust on e-banking is crucial because it can make the banks to lose money and popularity if hackers are able to access customers accounts. It can be ensured by putting stringent measures on the banks systems and including in its website the symbols/signs and text that will make the customer aware of the security of the website. Some researchers believe that in electronic cyber consumer trust is more important than in traditional transactions (Kim, Ferrin and Rao 2007). There are signs and symbols that are used in the website that indicate to the customer that the site is trustworthy. These trustworthy signs may be explicit and some implicit (French, Liu Springett 2007). 2.1.4 Cultural Models The world is comprised of people with different cultural backgrounds which justifies their behavioural variation. This variation usually shows the different cultures and values of these people. Culture is something that identifies and differentiates one person from another and it is something that is not inherited or from genes but it is learned. The environment in which a person grows usually determines the persons culture because he/she learns the language, the norms and values of the people with which he/she lives. Hofstede (1991) defines culture as the collection of human mind that distinguish the members of one human group or category of people from those of others. The manifestation of cultural differences is formed through a combination of four characteristics: symbols, heroes, rituals, and values. Rituals are sacred things that must be carried out within a cultural environment. Values are cultural things that are mentally stored as one grows up within the cultural environment. Symbols are things like language, pictures/objects and gestures that depicts meaning understood within the same cultural group. Heroes are people respected and considered to be role models within a cultural environment, however, this changes as the child graduate into adulthood. Cultural differences across the world vary according to ethnic groups and also across geographic boundaries. 2.1.5 Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions Hofstede (1984, 1991) identified the following five cultural dimensions which could be used to compare and measure cultural differences. 2.1.5.1 Power Distance Index Power is not distributed equally among the society. This is indicated by some people having more power than others, eg. some people are born kings, chiefs already having that status even at the very early age as toddlers. These people will be respected from that very early age even in way they are addressed. However, the power distance can be measured differently depending on the difference in society. There are those that are termed as large power distance culture where the subordinates do as told and the superior gives instructions and is the only one who decides what is good for the society or organisation. On the other hand there are those that are termed low power distance where there is consultation between the superior and the subordinates. In this category the superior respects the subordinates and entrust them with important assignments believing that they will be successfully completed. 2.1.5.2 Individualism versus Collectivism In individualism can be classified as nuclear family where each individual act independently, making his/her own choices and decisions. As a member of the nuclear family, the individual has to take care of himself/herself and his/her immediate families. On the other hand collectivism can be classified as patrilineal or matrilineal where people, after being integrated into the society at birth, are looked after by extended families. 2.1.5.3 Masculine versus Femininity Division of roles depend on gender, Men must provide for their families and female must take care of the children and the whole family. The assertiveness of men creates dominance over female on economic life within the family irrespective of whether it is an extended or nuclear family. However, in developed countries there are some variations on gender role pattern that enable females to enrol in courses that were initially designed for men and therefore do jobs that were done by men. In some underdeveloped or developing countries where the gender role pattern still exists, women are barred from doing jobs that are considered to be designed for men and women are also barred from enrolling on courses that are designed for men. This gender role pattern is still strictly followed in some underdeveloped countries where men are said to be head of families and thus gives the men all authority over everything that goes on in the family. Woman in such families do not have any say, they are t old what to do, how and when by their husbands and they are not supposed to question the instructions from men. 2.1.5.4 Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) Most people fear uncertain situations because they cannot predict what might happen in the near future. To minimise this, organisations or societies engage strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and religious and cultural beliefs to protect their organisations or societies. However, avoidance of uncertainty varies according to cultural differences. In high power distance culture, the boss is the only one to make decisions and the subordinates must strictly follow the bosss instructions. Subordinates expect the supervisors to tell them what to do because they regard each other as unequal. In organisations, this is also indicated by the wide salary gap whereas in societies it is indicated by the prestige given to superiors (e.g. chiefs) by their subordinates (e.g. tribes). In low power distance culture there is respect by supervisors over their subordinates. The supervisors entrust subordinates with important assignments trusting that the work will be done efficiently and if there is something wrong the supervisor will not put the blame on the subordinates, but rather takes it upon himself. The society believes people are equal irrespective of their education, religion or wealth. There is more democracy as subordinates views are sought and taken into consideration when making decisions. 2.1.5.5 Long-Term Orientation versus Short-Term Orientation The long-term orientation versus short-term orientation is a model which came a after Hofstede was convinced by Michael Bond who called this dimension the Confucian dynamism. Values of long-term orientation are more oriented towards future e.g. perseverance and thrift while on the short-term the values are more oriented towards past and present and therefore more static e.g. respect for tradition and reciprocation of greetings, favours and gifts, personal steadiness and stability. 2.1.6 Trompenaars, Hall and Other Cultural Models There are several cultural models most of which overlap into Hofstedes models (Kluckhohn; Trompenaars 2000). Trompenaars developed the below models: 2.1.6.1 Universalism versus Particularism This can be viewed as authority versus consultation. In authority the one who has authority gives instructions and makes decision without the involvement of others whereas in consultation other peoples views are taken into consideration when making decisions. 2.1.6.2 Individualism versus Communicationism Where there is balance between individuals and groups needs. 2.1.6.3 Specific versus Diffuse Relationships Here the business is done on an abstract relationship (contract) or on good personal relationship in order to bring in liking and trust. 2.1.6.4 Neutral versus Affective Communication Styles In this dimension people hide and hold on to their emotions or they show them up in which case they expect some emotional response. 2.1.6.5 Time Orientation Monochromic culture focuses more on performing the task promptly meeting the original plan and prefers to do one task at a time. Polychronic culture tends to e multi-tasking, doing different things at the same time, and emphasis is more on relationship than on tasks. 2.1.7 Halls Cultural Models Hall (1976, 1983) developed the three cultural dimensions in which he describe how people behave. Following are his Cultural Models: 2.1.7.1 Context High Context People are helped by many contextual elements to understand the rules and it is a problem for those who do not understand unwritten rules. Low Context More explanation on rules is done as things are not taken for granted and therefore there is less chance of misunderstanding. 2.1.7.2 Time Monochronic Time is where one thing is done at a time and the concern is achieving the task on schedule. Polychronic Time is where several things are done at the same time (multi-tasking) and here the concern is on relationship and not schedule. 2.1.7.3 Space High Territorial Some people have greater concern for ownership and try to mark their territorial boundaries whether at home, parking space and even in shared offices. Low Territorial People here are not much concerned with ownership of space and for them it less important Hofstede, Trompenaars and Hall did extensive research that enabled them to conduct rankings on countries cultural differences. Hofstede conducted his research on 50 countries whilst Trompenaars conducted his on between 19 and 52 countries though with fewer rankings. Although it does not clearly show whether Hall did any rankings but he did a comparison of cultural dimensions among the French, Americans and Germans. 2.1.8 Tswana Culture Households in the Tswana polities usually take the form of three residential sites: one household in the village, one at agricultural holdings outside the village but not very far from the village (where ploughing takes place) and the last a cattlepost (with kraals for keeping livestock owned by the family). †¢ Power Distance: Tswana tribes greatly respect their elders which is shown especially when the younger ones greet the elders. In Botswana greetings are used to judge somebodys behaviour and greetings are conducted in a certain manner. When greeting an elder, a younger has to stop a bit to show respect and if the younger person is a male wearing a hat, he has to take it off to show respect to the elder. A man also has to take off his hat when getting inside the house as a custom unless the man is a widower. Each Tswana tribe or ethnic group has a Chief (Kgosi) who is helped by paternal uncles and Headmen. The paternal uncles are by virtue of close relationship to the Chief advisors as they are considered to have the royal blood. Kgosis traditional court is called Kgotla, and it is the main customary court within the village where disputes or misunderstandings that could not be solved by Headmen are solved. The Chiefs Kgotla also acts as the Traditional Court of Appeal within th e village, where people who are not satisfied with the Headmens rulings can appeal. Chieftainship is inherited, so for a person to be a chief he/she has to be born from the royal family and not somebody chosen. Most of the Tswana people are Christians as Christianity was brought in Botswana as early as 1845 by a Scotsman named Dr. David Livingstone. The first Christian to be baptized by Dr Livingstone was Chief Sechele of the Bakwena and this was a good sign towards improvement in peoples way of living. For a chief to be a Christian it was easier to convince other chiefs and the people to become Christians. Christianity also contributed a lot to Tswana culture as it reduced the bureaucratic principles where only one person would make decisions for the whole family or tribe and nowadays consultation is the norm. †¢ Individualism versus Collectivism: Collectivism is the norm with the Tswana Culture where somebody has to take care of his/her family and also the extended family like uncles, grandparents, aunts, nephews and nieces. In the olden days class differentiation was very low and mostly invisible because traditionally those who had more cattle would help those who had none by distributing the cattle to those households for management. This helped the families because they would use the cattle to plough with and user their milk to feed their own family. This management of cattle also resulted in people being paid by one cow every six months or every year depending on the agreement between the owner of the cattle and the person taking care of the cattle. However, some people do not want to take the responsibilities of extended families and that is why there are organisations like SOS and other orphanage organisations to take care of orphans and also the government is giving out food r ations on monthly basis to orphans, elderly people and families considered to be very poor. †¢ Masculinity versus femininity: In the traditional Tswana setup masculinity is the norm, roles are distinguished according to gender, and this is clearly visible in traditional ceremonies where men are the only ones to sit on chairs and women sit on mats and also that in meetings men are to speak first and women are to confirm what the men have said. Men were considered heads of the families and therefore their decisions were final and unquestionable. But since the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 (United Nations World-Wide Web page 1995) and the government of Botswanas emphasis on equality, some jobs/tasks which were considered to be for males only are now considered unisex. At present there are some women chiefs in some Tswana tribes which traditionally the chieftainship was considered to be for men, even if the chief would die only having daughters that meant chieftainship would be given to one of the partenal uncle s or his elder son. By this the chiefs family would have lost the chieftainship inheritance. †¢ Uncertainty avoidance: Tswana ethnic group used to believe in ancestors and most of them liked to consult traditional healers for different illnesses and protection against evil spirits. Since the introduction of Christian religion through Dr David Livingstone in 1843, most people no longer believe in traditional healing. The staple food for Tswana is sorghum or corn meal porridge which is made thinner for breakfast and thicker for lunch and supper eaten with some relish which may be chicken, meat from goat, sheep or cattle (sometimes pounded), caterpillar known as phane and various wild game and vegetables. But these cultures of food have now shifted a bit but are more common in ceremonial occasions like weddings and funerals and also westernised foods are prepared like coleslaw, pumpkin, squash, rice, etc. †¢ Long-term versus Short: Tswana culture used to allow children to go to school only to learn how to read and write. Most female teenagers were taken out of school to go and be married to elderly men as an arranged marriage between the parents without the agreement of the female teenager, but now people find their own partners and marry when they feel they are ready and not pushed. 2.1.9 Kalanga Culture Kalanga tribe is found in the north eastern part of Botswana and some in Zimbabwe, only separated by the border. The Kalanga tribe in Botswana, who are still withholding their culture, are mostly found in different villages within the north east side of Botswana. The Kalanga Language was taught in primary schools until 1972, six years after Botswana gained its independence from the British, and now the Kalanga tribe believe that since the discontinued teaching of Kalanga Language in primary schools their culture has been jeopardised. The staple food for Kalanga is sorghum or corn meal porridge which is always made thick and taken with relish. The relish is comprised of meat (sometimes pounded), caterpillar known as phane and various wild game and vegetables. But these cultures of food have now shifted a bit but are more common in ceremonial occasions like weddings and funerals and also westernised foods are prepared like coleslaw, pumpkin, rice, squash etc. Power Distance: The Kalanga, like the Tswana, have chiefs who look after the tribe. Their ancestral belief is very high even if they still do practise Christianity. This is shown in their annual Dombosaha ceremonies and also in their prayers for rain. Their prayers are conducted at the hill call Domboshaba, where they believe their ancestral god Ngwale is. The word Domboshaba means Red Hill Dombo means hill and shaba means red. Bakalaka treat Domboshaba like the Islam treat Mecca, this means Domboshaba is a holly place for Bakalaka. They believe the ancestors are always watching over the living and if the ancestors become upset they are able to send sickness to the living as a sign of displeasure. According to the Kalanga tribe the spirits displeasure is revealed through illnesses, droughts and other calamities and can be appeased only through worship to Ngwale. Individualism versus Collectivism: The Kalanga tribes are still strictly using collectivism as they look after each other or their extended families. Individualism is avoided as their belief is no man is an island. They emphasise on community care which shows collectivism dimension. Uncertainty avoidance: The Kalanga tribes believe in worshipping their ancestral god called Ngwale and they also believe in pleasing Ngwale to avoid punishment. Their belief is that Ngwale is always looking at them and if he is not happy with them, he will punish them by bringing incurable diseases, droughts and other disasters. Due to these beliefs the Kalanga tribe do not want to anger Ngwale in order to avoid the situations of calamities. They also believe in consulting Ngwale go guide them or help them solve some problems for which they have no control of like when there is not enough rain durin Impact of the Technological Revolution Impact of the Technological Revolution 1 INTRODUCTION The role of technological revolution has touched every aspect of peoples lives from shopping to banking. The changes have great impact on services quality and banking activities has enabled the banks to compete in the world markets (Siam 1999-2004, 2006). The banking industry worldwide is witnessing a growing technology driven self-service by way of electronic banking (e-banking) through interacting with customers as a way of increasing productivity. The use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) helps the banks in making strategic decisions by enabling better alignment of business to build better relationship with customers. ICT has enabled banks to provide the following services: Automated Teller Machines (ATM) that have been installed at convenient places for customers to access their accounts anytime. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) that allows different organisations to exchange transactional, financial and business information between their computer systems. Plastic Cards designed to pay for goods and services without necessarily using cash and also to withdraw cash from ATMs located worldwide. Electronic Clearing Service (ECS) is a facility that allows fund transfer from one bank to another electronically. It can be used for bulk or repetitive transfers either by institutions for dividend distribution, salary, etc. and pension, or by individuals for regular payments to utility, loan repayment, etc. Internet Banking as a channel of Electronic Banking (E-banking) allows the customer to do transactions through the banks web page in a flexible mode, i.e. at anytime and anywhere. The flexibility of E-banking is a major benefit to customers because they are able to access the banking services at the comfort of their homes or offices and no more queuing at banks. For the banking sector, E-banking is a big investment on capital and resource though the initial acquisition of relevant infrastructure, standardisation and security are expensive, especially for small banks in developing countries, but not a big problem for big banks in developed countries. These also have to follow the standard legislative and regulatory issues set within a country to protect customers rights, especially the concerning data protection. 1.1 Background of Study The role of internet has become unavoidable to business and society. Businesses and governments worldwide are always working on how to better utilise the internet in order to increase their penetration into the global market (Khan, Mahapatra Sreekumar (2009). Banking sector has seen the use of Information Technology (IT) a better way of reducing the traditional way of investing and moving along the modern technological changes in order to meet up with the global market. The growing changes in technology bring economical and social consequences on our daily life and these changes brought about the Internet. The Internet provides services like, World Wide Web (WWW), Automated Teller Machines (ATM), Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) which are the core business services of E-banking. The banking sector has embarked on internet banking systems to enable their customers to access their accounts globally and in a flexible mode through their websites. Thi s move to internet banking has seen banks reducing long queues as some customers can serve themselves either through the ATMs or through the website, depending on the type of service they want to perform. Though the banking has embarked on internet banking systems, it has not totally abolished the traditional banking activities. This is to allow those customers who need face to face help to still come to banks to get help on whatever activities or services they need either because they do not trust the web or because they are unable to do not know the technology used and fear to make mistakes. Internet is used world wide for different things, some good and some malicious. This then brings in the issue of trust on the part of both the web site owners and users. Some users still prefer to go and queue in the banks because either they do not trust the web services or are unfamiliar with the systems and therefore feel uncomfortable to use e-banking. Trust should be built in order to encourage more customers to use the web site for their banking service needs. Trust can be categorised into tangible and intangible trust. Tangible trust is an implied trust that can be addressed by the use of digital certificates and SSL protocols and service level granularity. On the other hand intangible trust is something that can be formed or reinforced and is subjective, emotional and has a rational component. Trust can build or destroy the organisations reputation. 1.2 Motivation of Study There has been considerable work carried out in the field of e-banking/e-commerce trust (Smith French 2005); (Khalil 2007), however, there was a gap in their knowledge of cultural gap, especially in developing countries like Botswana. The motivation on this research is as follows: The need to show the importance of localisation of e-banking site as e-banking is a new phenomenon in Botswana. To make further studies on cultures of two ethnic groups within the same country as there have been very little research on this area. This is not the case with developed countries as the studies show that there has been localisation of e-banking to suit their target markets (Singer, Baradwaj and Avery 2007). 1.3 Aim The main aim of this research is to examine how the Tswana and Kalanga ethnic groups of Botswana culturally perceive trust on a B2C e-banking website and to design an e-banking website for each ethnic group. 1.4 Objectives The following objectives will be achieved through this study: A research will be carried out on how cultural background influences the trust and use of e-banking services. To relate the findings of the research in the design process of a web sites that suits the culture for Tswana and Kalanga ethnic groups. 1.5 Research Questions The research study aims to test the following key questions: What is the impact of culture on the contents of e-banking site? How does culture affect online trust in e-banking? Is it necessary to consider culture, trust and usability in designing e-banking website? How does Tswana and Kalanga cultural differences affect e-banking? 1.6 Methodology The research employs both primary and secondary data. Primary data will be collected through a structured survey which will be an online. The online survey will be through email where a link will be sent to the respondents in Botswana and UK. This method is chosen because it is flexible in that the respondents answer the questionnaires at their own free time and in a flexible mode of their computers. The other important thing is that it is cheaper to administer and responses are received more quickly and also that if there are any errors in the questionnaire it is easier to correct the errors. 2 E-SERVICES AND CULTURE WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP 2.1 E-Commerce and E-Banking The development of Information Technology and the advent of internet have enabled traditional business activities to change into Electronic Commerce (E-commerce). E-commerce is a process that allows businesses and customers (B2C) to exchange goods and services electronically anytime anywhere, and it includes banking, stocks and bonds, retail shopping, movie rentals, etc. E-Commerce has opened a global market where businesses can reach their respective customers quickly and cost effectively (Li et al 2009). For trading to be successful in this virtual world, trust must be considered vital not forgetting culture. E-commerce includes inter-organisational marketing process in which the following relationships are observed: B2B (business to business), B2C (business to consumer), and C2C (consumer to consumer). E-banking sometimes called electronic banking or internet banking is a system that allows people to conduct transactions and manage their accounts without necessarily going to the brick and mortar banks. For customers using internet banking to access their account, they need to have personal accounts at the respective banks websites. For e-banking to be effective, banks should invest on IT infrastructure like Hardware, Software, Networking which include connection to the internet. Automated Teller Machines (ATM) and personal computers have reduced the cost in favour of banks on paper work and labour force since customers use self services offered by banks. However, it should be noted that there are still some people who would want to be served by bank officials either because he/she does not know how to operate the banks system, does not trust it or want face-to-face interaction with bank officials. 2.1.1 Benefits of E-Banking Electronic banking or online banking is the most popular means of e-commerce for millions people worldwide. Most banking products and services are now offered over the Internet. Banks have invested in robust information technology practices and secure-transaction technologies that have made electronic banking trustworthy. This has also created some benefits on e-banking as follows: Convenience and flexibility as the customer is able to pay bills, shop and transfer money from anywhere at any time suitable to the customer as long as the customer has access to a personal computer and internet connectivity. There is no strictness of business hours as the services are available 24 hours every day unlike in the traditional brick and mortar where a customer has to observe working hours. Customers are able to manage their customers as they are able to access their accounts and therefore can cross check their accounts anytime. To the customer the only cost associated with e-banking is the cost of the time spent online which is usually charged by the internet provider. There is also time and money saving as customers do not have to travel distances to their respective banks unless on crucial issues. 2.1.2 Limitations of E-Banking As well as electronic banking have advantages there are some limitations too. Below are some limitations on electronic banking. Some bank websites have too much information that confuses the customers and the customer may feel it is a waste of time as he/she does not get the information that he/she wants and may never bother to visit the website again. The financial needs of the customer may not be quickly be predicted and therefore will take some time to be solved, which is an inconvenience to the customer. Hacking and identity theft are on the rise this calls for a certain amount of trust placed on the banks by electronic banking customers. The system should be able to stand against hacking. There is no Face-to-face interaction in electronic banking and some customers still need this type of service that are observed in a traditional bank to quickly solve or answer customers queries. In case of internet failure the customer is unable to withdraw money from his/her account and unable to even use the ATMs or credit/debit cards. Some banks charge for ATM usage by non-customers, therefore if a customer stays where there is not ATM for his/her bank, then he/she will be charged to using the facility of another bank. 2.1.3 Security and Trust Security issues are a major concern for everybody using internet whether for banking purposes or not. There is an increase of security risks in the banking sector as their systems are exposed to risky environments. Confidentiality, integrity, privacy and availability are the core areas of security that banks and financial institutions must address (Jide Awe 2006). This calls for banks and financial services authority to plan ahead in monitoring and managing the security threats. The security threats are classified in three categories; breaches with serious threats (e.g. fraud), breaches caused by casual hackers (e.g. web sites defacement or services denial (e.g. causes of web sites to crash) and flaws in systems design (e.g. genuine users able to see or use another users accounts). These threats cause serious financial, legal and reputational implications to the banks affected. Banks and financial institutions need to put in place security measures to respond to these threats. The security measures need constant update in order for them to cope with the ever increasing and advanced threats. The banks should also have sufficient staff who have security expertise in order to keep on checking and updating the banks systems. These threats bring in customers lack of trust on the electronic banking that is why some customers prefer to queue at banks to get services that they would have otherwise done through the internet. Trust should be built in order to encourage more customers to use the web site for their banking service needs. McKnight, Cummings and Chervany (1998) define trust as an individuals beliefs about the extent to which a target is likely to behave in a way that is benevolent, competent, honest, or predictable in a situation. Trust can be categorised into tangible and intangible trust. Tangible trust is an implied trust that can be addressed by the use of digital certificates and SSL protocols and service level granularity. On the other hand intangible trust is something that can be formed or reinforced and is subjective, emotional and has a rational component. Trust can build or destroy the organisations reputation. Trust is very important and should be the critical area for each bank to consider because if customers do not trust a bank then the bank will be out of business. Trust on e-banking is crucial because it can make the banks to lose money and popularity if hackers are able to access customers accounts. It can be ensured by putting stringent measures on the banks systems and including in its website the symbols/signs and text that will make the customer aware of the security of the website. Some researchers believe that in electronic cyber consumer trust is more important than in traditional transactions (Kim, Ferrin and Rao 2007). There are signs and symbols that are used in the website that indicate to the customer that the site is trustworthy. These trustworthy signs may be explicit and some implicit (French, Liu Springett 2007). 2.1.4 Cultural Models The world is comprised of people with different cultural backgrounds which justifies their behavioural variation. This variation usually shows the different cultures and values of these people. Culture is something that identifies and differentiates one person from another and it is something that is not inherited or from genes but it is learned. The environment in which a person grows usually determines the persons culture because he/she learns the language, the norms and values of the people with which he/she lives. Hofstede (1991) defines culture as the collection of human mind that distinguish the members of one human group or category of people from those of others. The manifestation of cultural differences is formed through a combination of four characteristics: symbols, heroes, rituals, and values. Rituals are sacred things that must be carried out within a cultural environment. Values are cultural things that are mentally stored as one grows up within the cultural environment. Symbols are things like language, pictures/objects and gestures that depicts meaning understood within the same cultural group. Heroes are people respected and considered to be role models within a cultural environment, however, this changes as the child graduate into adulthood. Cultural differences across the world vary according to ethnic groups and also across geographic boundaries. 2.1.5 Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions Hofstede (1984, 1991) identified the following five cultural dimensions which could be used to compare and measure cultural differences. 2.1.5.1 Power Distance Index Power is not distributed equally among the society. This is indicated by some people having more power than others, eg. some people are born kings, chiefs already having that status even at the very early age as toddlers. These people will be respected from that very early age even in way they are addressed. However, the power distance can be measured differently depending on the difference in society. There are those that are termed as large power distance culture where the subordinates do as told and the superior gives instructions and is the only one who decides what is good for the society or organisation. On the other hand there are those that are termed low power distance where there is consultation between the superior and the subordinates. In this category the superior respects the subordinates and entrust them with important assignments believing that they will be successfully completed. 2.1.5.2 Individualism versus Collectivism In individualism can be classified as nuclear family where each individual act independently, making his/her own choices and decisions. As a member of the nuclear family, the individual has to take care of himself/herself and his/her immediate families. On the other hand collectivism can be classified as patrilineal or matrilineal where people, after being integrated into the society at birth, are looked after by extended families. 2.1.5.3 Masculine versus Femininity Division of roles depend on gender, Men must provide for their families and female must take care of the children and the whole family. The assertiveness of men creates dominance over female on economic life within the family irrespective of whether it is an extended or nuclear family. However, in developed countries there are some variations on gender role pattern that enable females to enrol in courses that were initially designed for men and therefore do jobs that were done by men. In some underdeveloped or developing countries where the gender role pattern still exists, women are barred from doing jobs that are considered to be designed for men and women are also barred from enrolling on courses that are designed for men. This gender role pattern is still strictly followed in some underdeveloped countries where men are said to be head of families and thus gives the men all authority over everything that goes on in the family. Woman in such families do not have any say, they are t old what to do, how and when by their husbands and they are not supposed to question the instructions from men. 2.1.5.4 Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) Most people fear uncertain situations because they cannot predict what might happen in the near future. To minimise this, organisations or societies engage strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and religious and cultural beliefs to protect their organisations or societies. However, avoidance of uncertainty varies according to cultural differences. In high power distance culture, the boss is the only one to make decisions and the subordinates must strictly follow the bosss instructions. Subordinates expect the supervisors to tell them what to do because they regard each other as unequal. In organisations, this is also indicated by the wide salary gap whereas in societies it is indicated by the prestige given to superiors (e.g. chiefs) by their subordinates (e.g. tribes). In low power distance culture there is respect by supervisors over their subordinates. The supervisors entrust subordinates with important assignments trusting that the work will be done efficiently and if there is something wrong the supervisor will not put the blame on the subordinates, but rather takes it upon himself. The society believes people are equal irrespective of their education, religion or wealth. There is more democracy as subordinates views are sought and taken into consideration when making decisions. 2.1.5.5 Long-Term Orientation versus Short-Term Orientation The long-term orientation versus short-term orientation is a model which came a after Hofstede was convinced by Michael Bond who called this dimension the Confucian dynamism. Values of long-term orientation are more oriented towards future e.g. perseverance and thrift while on the short-term the values are more oriented towards past and present and therefore more static e.g. respect for tradition and reciprocation of greetings, favours and gifts, personal steadiness and stability. 2.1.6 Trompenaars, Hall and Other Cultural Models There are several cultural models most of which overlap into Hofstedes models (Kluckhohn; Trompenaars 2000). Trompenaars developed the below models: 2.1.6.1 Universalism versus Particularism This can be viewed as authority versus consultation. In authority the one who has authority gives instructions and makes decision without the involvement of others whereas in consultation other peoples views are taken into consideration when making decisions. 2.1.6.2 Individualism versus Communicationism Where there is balance between individuals and groups needs. 2.1.6.3 Specific versus Diffuse Relationships Here the business is done on an abstract relationship (contract) or on good personal relationship in order to bring in liking and trust. 2.1.6.4 Neutral versus Affective Communication Styles In this dimension people hide and hold on to their emotions or they show them up in which case they expect some emotional response. 2.1.6.5 Time Orientation Monochromic culture focuses more on performing the task promptly meeting the original plan and prefers to do one task at a time. Polychronic culture tends to e multi-tasking, doing different things at the same time, and emphasis is more on relationship than on tasks. 2.1.7 Halls Cultural Models Hall (1976, 1983) developed the three cultural dimensions in which he describe how people behave. Following are his Cultural Models: 2.1.7.1 Context High Context People are helped by many contextual elements to understand the rules and it is a problem for those who do not understand unwritten rules. Low Context More explanation on rules is done as things are not taken for granted and therefore there is less chance of misunderstanding. 2.1.7.2 Time Monochronic Time is where one thing is done at a time and the concern is achieving the task on schedule. Polychronic Time is where several things are done at the same time (multi-tasking) and here the concern is on relationship and not schedule. 2.1.7.3 Space High Territorial Some people have greater concern for ownership and try to mark their territorial boundaries whether at home, parking space and even in shared offices. Low Territorial People here are not much concerned with ownership of space and for them it less important Hofstede, Trompenaars and Hall did extensive research that enabled them to conduct rankings on countries cultural differences. Hofstede conducted his research on 50 countries whilst Trompenaars conducted his on between 19 and 52 countries though with fewer rankings. Although it does not clearly show whether Hall did any rankings but he did a comparison of cultural dimensions among the French, Americans and Germans. 2.1.8 Tswana Culture Households in the Tswana polities usually take the form of three residential sites: one household in the village, one at agricultural holdings outside the village but not very far from the village (where ploughing takes place) and the last a cattlepost (with kraals for keeping livestock owned by the family). †¢ Power Distance: Tswana tribes greatly respect their elders which is shown especially when the younger ones greet the elders. In Botswana greetings are used to judge somebodys behaviour and greetings are conducted in a certain manner. When greeting an elder, a younger has to stop a bit to show respect and if the younger person is a male wearing a hat, he has to take it off to show respect to the elder. A man also has to take off his hat when getting inside the house as a custom unless the man is a widower. Each Tswana tribe or ethnic group has a Chief (Kgosi) who is helped by paternal uncles and Headmen. The paternal uncles are by virtue of close relationship to the Chief advisors as they are considered to have the royal blood. Kgosis traditional court is called Kgotla, and it is the main customary court within the village where disputes or misunderstandings that could not be solved by Headmen are solved. The Chiefs Kgotla also acts as the Traditional Court of Appeal within th e village, where people who are not satisfied with the Headmens rulings can appeal. Chieftainship is inherited, so for a person to be a chief he/she has to be born from the royal family and not somebody chosen. Most of the Tswana people are Christians as Christianity was brought in Botswana as early as 1845 by a Scotsman named Dr. David Livingstone. The first Christian to be baptized by Dr Livingstone was Chief Sechele of the Bakwena and this was a good sign towards improvement in peoples way of living. For a chief to be a Christian it was easier to convince other chiefs and the people to become Christians. Christianity also contributed a lot to Tswana culture as it reduced the bureaucratic principles where only one person would make decisions for the whole family or tribe and nowadays consultation is the norm. †¢ Individualism versus Collectivism: Collectivism is the norm with the Tswana Culture where somebody has to take care of his/her family and also the extended family like uncles, grandparents, aunts, nephews and nieces. In the olden days class differentiation was very low and mostly invisible because traditionally those who had more cattle would help those who had none by distributing the cattle to those households for management. This helped the families because they would use the cattle to plough with and user their milk to feed their own family. This management of cattle also resulted in people being paid by one cow every six months or every year depending on the agreement between the owner of the cattle and the person taking care of the cattle. However, some people do not want to take the responsibilities of extended families and that is why there are organisations like SOS and other orphanage organisations to take care of orphans and also the government is giving out food r ations on monthly basis to orphans, elderly people and families considered to be very poor. †¢ Masculinity versus femininity: In the traditional Tswana setup masculinity is the norm, roles are distinguished according to gender, and this is clearly visible in traditional ceremonies where men are the only ones to sit on chairs and women sit on mats and also that in meetings men are to speak first and women are to confirm what the men have said. Men were considered heads of the families and therefore their decisions were final and unquestionable. But since the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action at the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 (United Nations World-Wide Web page 1995) and the government of Botswanas emphasis on equality, some jobs/tasks which were considered to be for males only are now considered unisex. At present there are some women chiefs in some Tswana tribes which traditionally the chieftainship was considered to be for men, even if the chief would die only having daughters that meant chieftainship would be given to one of the partenal uncle s or his elder son. By this the chiefs family would have lost the chieftainship inheritance. †¢ Uncertainty avoidance: Tswana ethnic group used to believe in ancestors and most of them liked to consult traditional healers for different illnesses and protection against evil spirits. Since the introduction of Christian religion through Dr David Livingstone in 1843, most people no longer believe in traditional healing. The staple food for Tswana is sorghum or corn meal porridge which is made thinner for breakfast and thicker for lunch and supper eaten with some relish which may be chicken, meat from goat, sheep or cattle (sometimes pounded), caterpillar known as phane and various wild game and vegetables. But these cultures of food have now shifted a bit but are more common in ceremonial occasions like weddings and funerals and also westernised foods are prepared like coleslaw, pumpkin, squash, rice, etc. †¢ Long-term versus Short: Tswana culture used to allow children to go to school only to learn how to read and write. Most female teenagers were taken out of school to go and be married to elderly men as an arranged marriage between the parents without the agreement of the female teenager, but now people find their own partners and marry when they feel they are ready and not pushed. 2.1.9 Kalanga Culture Kalanga tribe is found in the north eastern part of Botswana and some in Zimbabwe, only separated by the border. The Kalanga tribe in Botswana, who are still withholding their culture, are mostly found in different villages within the north east side of Botswana. The Kalanga Language was taught in primary schools until 1972, six years after Botswana gained its independence from the British, and now the Kalanga tribe believe that since the discontinued teaching of Kalanga Language in primary schools their culture has been jeopardised. The staple food for Kalanga is sorghum or corn meal porridge which is always made thick and taken with relish. The relish is comprised of meat (sometimes pounded), caterpillar known as phane and various wild game and vegetables. But these cultures of food have now shifted a bit but are more common in ceremonial occasions like weddings and funerals and also westernised foods are prepared like coleslaw, pumpkin, rice, squash etc. Power Distance: The Kalanga, like the Tswana, have chiefs who look after the tribe. Their ancestral belief is very high even if they still do practise Christianity. This is shown in their annual Dombosaha ceremonies and also in their prayers for rain. Their prayers are conducted at the hill call Domboshaba, where they believe their ancestral god Ngwale is. The word Domboshaba means Red Hill Dombo means hill and shaba means red. Bakalaka treat Domboshaba like the Islam treat Mecca, this means Domboshaba is a holly place for Bakalaka. They believe the ancestors are always watching over the living and if the ancestors become upset they are able to send sickness to the living as a sign of displeasure. According to the Kalanga tribe the spirits displeasure is revealed through illnesses, droughts and other calamities and can be appeased only through worship to Ngwale. Individualism versus Collectivism: The Kalanga tribes are still strictly using collectivism as they look after each other or their extended families. Individualism is avoided as their belief is no man is an island. They emphasise on community care which shows collectivism dimension. Uncertainty avoidance: The Kalanga tribes believe in worshipping their ancestral god called Ngwale and they also believe in pleasing Ngwale to avoid punishment. Their belief is that Ngwale is always looking at them and if he is not happy with them, he will punish them by bringing incurable diseases, droughts and other disasters. Due to these beliefs the Kalanga tribe do not want to anger Ngwale in order to avoid the situations of calamities. They also believe in consulting Ngwale go guide them or help them solve some problems for which they have no control of like when there is not enough rain durin